{"id":16872,"date":"2026-05-15T12:22:29","date_gmt":"2026-05-15T12:22:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/?post_type=blog&#038;p=16872"},"modified":"2026-05-15T12:28:42","modified_gmt":"2026-05-15T12:28:42","slug":"drug-addiction-a-public-health-issue","status":"publish","type":"blog","link":"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/fr\/blog\/drug-addiction-a-public-health-issue\/","title":{"rendered":"Drug Addiction: A Public Health Issue that Refuses to Go Away"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<div x-data='subNav({\"anchor_map\":{\"https:\\\/\\\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\\\/blog\\\/drug-addiction-a-public-health-issue\":\"Part 1: Introduction\",\"https:\\\/\\\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\\\/blog\\\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\\\/\":\"Part 2: Intoxication \",\"https:\\\/\\\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\\\/blog\\\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\\\/\":\"Part 3: Withdrawal\",\"https:\\\/\\\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\\\/blog\\\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\\\/\":\"Part 4: Craving\"}})' id=\"pegasus-subnav\" class=\"SubNav w-full text-content-tertiary \" false x-cloak style=\"\">\n    <div x-ref=\"fixedNav\" class=\"SubNav__bar w-full h-[var(--subnav-height)] z-page-header whitespace-nowrap border-t border-grey-200 container flex items-center justify-between shadow-sm\">\n\n                    <!-- Desktop Navigation (tablet and up) -->\n            <div class=\"flex items-center min-w-0 flex-1 mr-4\">\n                                    <div class=\"flex items-center gap-x-3 mr-4 sm:mr-8 pr-4 sm:pr-8 md:border-r md:border-grey-200 flex-shrink-0\">\n                        \n                                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/in-vivo-pharmacology\/cns-and-pain-models\/\" class=\"wp-block-button wp-block-button is-style-back-chevron text-content-primary \">\n                                <span class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button bg-ivory-300 text-content-primary rounded-full\">CNS &amp; Pain Models<\/span>\n                            <\/a>\n                                            <\/div>\n                \n                <div class=\"hidden md:block min-w-0 flex-1 overflow-hidden relative\">\n                    <div class=\"nav-container-wrapper\">\n                        <ul x-ref=\"navList\" class=\"flex flex-row items-center !m-0 !list-none gap-8 !py-4 overflow-x-auto scrollbar-hide pr-16\">\n                                                            <li class=\"!m-0 !p-0 !list-none flex-shrink-0\">\n                                    <div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-text-link\">\n                                        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/drug-addiction-a-public-health-issue\" class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button has-text-sm-font-size px-2 whitespace-nowrap after:bg-transparent \" :class=\"currentLink === 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/drug-addiction-a-public-health-issue' || 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/drug-addiction-a-public-health-issue' === window.location.href ? '-active' : ''\">\n                                            Part 1: Introduction\n                                        <\/a>\n                                    <\/div>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                            <li class=\"!m-0 !p-0 !list-none flex-shrink-0\">\n                                    <div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-text-link\">\n                                        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/\" class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button has-text-sm-font-size px-2 whitespace-nowrap after:bg-transparent \" :class=\"currentLink === 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/' || 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/' === window.location.href ? '-active' : ''\">\n                                            Part 2: Intoxication \n                                        <\/a>\n                                    <\/div>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                            <li class=\"!m-0 !p-0 !list-none flex-shrink-0\">\n                                    <div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-text-link\">\n                                        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\/\" class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button has-text-sm-font-size px-2 whitespace-nowrap after:bg-transparent \" :class=\"currentLink === 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\/' || 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\/' === window.location.href ? '-active' : ''\">\n                                            Part 3: Withdrawal\n                                        <\/a>\n                                    <\/div>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                            <li class=\"!m-0 !p-0 !list-none flex-shrink-0\">\n                                    <div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-text-link\">\n                                        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\/\" class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button has-text-sm-font-size px-2 whitespace-nowrap after:bg-transparent \" :class=\"currentLink === 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\/' || 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\/' === window.location.href ? '-active' : ''\">\n                                            Part 4: Craving\n                                        <\/a>\n                                    <\/div>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                    <\/ul>\n                        \n                        <div x-ref=\"scrollIndicator\" class=\"scroll-indicator\" x-show=\"showScrollIndicator\" x-transition:enter=\"transition ease-out duration-500\" x-transition:enter-start=\"opacity-0 transform translate-x-full\" x-transition:enter-end=\"opacity-100 transform translate-x-0\">\n                            <svg class=\"chevron-icon w-4 h-4\" viewbox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                                <path d=\"M5.65306 3.53025L10.6531 8.53025C10.7227 8.60018 10.7775 8.68297 10.8154 8.77414C10.8533 8.8653 10.8735 8.96304 10.8735 9.06175C10.8735 9.16046 10.8533 9.2582 10.8154 9.34936C10.7775 9.44053 10.7227 9.52332 10.6531 9.59325L5.65306 14.5932C5.51217 14.7341 5.32107 14.8133 5.12181 14.8133C4.92255 14.8133 4.73145 14.7341 4.59056 14.5932C4.44966 14.4523 4.37051 14.2612 4.37051 14.062C4.37051 13.8627 4.44966 13.6716 4.59056 13.5307L9.06294 9.06175L4.59056 4.59325C4.44966 4.45236 4.37051 4.26126 4.37051 4.062C4.37051 3.86274 4.44966 3.67164 4.59056 3.53075C4.73145 3.38985 4.92255 3.3107 5.12181 3.3107C5.32107 3.3107 5.51217 3.38985 5.65306 3.53075V3.53025Z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path>\n                            <\/svg>\n                        <\/div>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <!-- Mobile menu button -->\n            <button x-ref=\"navMenuButton\" type=\"button\" class=\"flex justify-center items-center py-2 whitespace-nowrap pl-5 pr-2.5 ml-auto md:hidden\" aria-label=\"Show more navigation items\" :aria-expanded=\"mobileSubMenuOpen\">\n                <span class=\"sr-only pr-2 inline-block\">More<\/span>\n\n                <svg class=\"transition duration-500 ease-in-out\" :class=\"mobileSubMenuOpen ? 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'bg-blue-50 text-blue-700 font-medium' : ''\" false>\n                                        Part 1: Introduction\n                                    <\/a>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                            <li class=\"!m-0 !p-0 !list-none\">\n                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/\" class=\"block px-4 py-3 rounded-lg text-sm text-gray-700 hover:bg-ivory-300 transition-colors duration-150 focus:outline-none focus:bg-ivory-300 focus:ring-2 focus:ring-inset focus:ring-blue-500 \" :class=\"currentLink === 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/' || 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/' === window.location.href ? 'bg-blue-50 text-blue-700 font-medium' : ''\" false>\n                                        Part 2: Intoxication \n                                    <\/a>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                            <li class=\"!m-0 !p-0 !list-none\">\n                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\/\" class=\"block px-4 py-3 rounded-lg text-sm text-gray-700 hover:bg-ivory-300 transition-colors duration-150 focus:outline-none focus:bg-ivory-300 focus:ring-2 focus:ring-inset focus:ring-blue-500 \" :class=\"currentLink === 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\/' || 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\/' === window.location.href ? 'bg-blue-50 text-blue-700 font-medium' : ''\" false>\n                                        Part 3: Withdrawal\n                                    <\/a>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                            <li class=\"!m-0 !p-0 !list-none\">\n                                    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\/\" class=\"block px-4 py-3 rounded-lg text-sm text-gray-700 hover:bg-ivory-300 transition-colors duration-150 focus:outline-none focus:bg-ivory-300 focus:ring-2 focus:ring-inset focus:ring-blue-500 \" :class=\"currentLink === 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\/' || 'https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\/' === window.location.href ? 'bg-blue-50 text-blue-700 font-medium' : ''\" false>\n                                        Part 4: Craving\n                                    <\/a>\n                                <\/li>\n                                                    <\/ul>\n\n                                                    <div class=\"mt-10 pb-5 \">\n                                \n        <div class=\"wp-block-button SubNav__ctaButton wp-block-button btn-primary dark mb-4 sm:mb-0 rounded-full inline-flex\">\n            <a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/contact\/\">Get in touch<\/a>\n        <\/div>\n        \n                            <\/div>\n                                            <\/div>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-2-xl-font-size\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50)\">Understanding Drug Addiction and Substance Use Disorders<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Socially, we use the term \u201caddiction\u201d to describe a range of behaviors that feel difficult to control. Often people will talk about being addicted to relatively harmless behaviors such as checking their phone or eating more chocolate than they intended. Clinically, however, drug addiction, more accurately referred to as a <strong>substance use disorder<\/strong>, has a much more precise definition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Substance use disorders are characterized by compulsive drug-seeking or drug-taking behavior that becomes necessary for normal functioning, is no longer fully under voluntary control, and causes harm to the individual. These harms may be <strong>physical<\/strong> (for example, infections caused by needle reuse), <strong>psychological<\/strong> (such as deteriorating mental health), or <strong>social<\/strong> (such as deteriorating relationships or reduced performance at work). In severe cases, substance use disorders are fatal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-2-xl-font-size\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">A Global Public Health Challenge<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite promising data in the UK revealing the proportion of people regular drug use fell by 2.7% between 2004 and 2024, the number of deaths attributed to drug misuse doubled over the same period. Furthermore, 10,473 alcohol-specific deaths (conditions that can only be caused by alcohol exposure) were recorded in 2023 alone. Finally, although it is difficult to identify tobacco smoke as the sole cause of medical conditions, it is estimated that ~74,000 people in the UK died from a smoking related illness in 2019 (Office for National Statistics).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-28f84493 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\" style=\"border-width:10px;border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"flex-basis:25%\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-vertically-aligned-top is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"flex-basis:50%\"><section class=\"Pegasus__Container w-full   relative h-fit  text-content-dark mobile-stacking-standard  has-ivory-000-border-color is-layout-flow wp-block-pegasus-container-is-layout-flow\" style=\"   border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px;border-width:10px;\">\n\t        \n\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t        \t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row-background absolute w-full bottom-0 left-0 z-0 h-full has-ivory-000-background-color\" style=\"\">\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"inner relative h-full is-flex-layout flex flex-col justify-start  w-full\">\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full has-custom-border\" style=\"margin-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"511\" height=\"295\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/uk-drug-use-prevalence-drug-misuse-deaths-2004-2024.webp\" alt=\"Bar chart showing the proportion of the UK population reporting drug use in the past 12 months alongside the number of deaths related to drug misuse per million people between 2004 and 2024.\" class=\"wp-image-16662\" style=\"border-style:none;border-width:0px;border-top-left-radius:0px;border-top-right-radius:0px;border-bottom-left-radius:0px;border-bottom-right-radius:0px\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/uk-drug-use-prevalence-drug-misuse-deaths-2004-2024.webp 511w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/uk-drug-use-prevalence-drug-misuse-deaths-2004-2024-300x173.webp 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 511px) 100vw, 511px\"><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center has-text-sm-font-size\"><em>Proportion of the UK population (%) that have reported used drugs within the past 12 months from 2004 to 2024. Data for 2021 and 2022 was not collected during to COVID-19 pandemic. Number of deaths (per million population) that coroner associated with drug misuse from 2004 to 2024<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t        <\/section>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"flex-basis:25%\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">The situation is by no means isolated to the UK. Many regions of the world experiencing similar or even higher rates of substance use disorder and associated deaths. In the United States, the opioid epidemic continues to drive high mortality, with fentanyl causing more than 48,000 deaths in 2024 (UNODC). Globally, and especially in Europe and North and South America, cocaine use has increased drastically with approximately 25 million regular users (UNODC). Countries in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa are similarly affected by high rates of amphetamine and methamphetamine use.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Even legally available and socially accepted drugs are cause for concern with the World Health Organisation estimating there are 2.6 million deaths associated with alcohol and 7 million deaths associated with tobacco smoke globally every year.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-2-xl-font-size\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">Treating Substance Use Disorders<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>A major obstacle in treating drug addiction is that pharmaceutical treatment options remain remarkably limited. \u00a0Currently, there are only nine FDA approved treatments for substance use disorders. Notably, none of which are approved for use in addiction to stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-28f84493 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\" style=\"border-width:10px;border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"flex-basis:25%\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-vertically-aligned-top is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"flex-basis:50%\"><section class=\"Pegasus__Container w-full   relative h-fit  text-content-dark mobile-stacking-standard  has-ivory-000-border-color is-layout-flow wp-block-pegasus-container-is-layout-flow\" style=\"   border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px;border-width:10px;\">\n\t        \n\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t        \t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row-background absolute w-full bottom-0 left-0 z-0 h-full has-ivory-000-background-color\" style=\"\">\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"inner relative h-full is-flex-layout flex flex-col justify-start  w-full\">\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full has-custom-border\" style=\"margin-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"312\" height=\"266\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/fda-approved-treatments-substance-use-disorders-venn-diagram.webp\" alt=\"Venn diagram showing FDA\u2011approved treatments for opioid, nicotine and alcohol use disorders, including methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone, varenicline, bupropion, acamprosate and behavioural therapies, with overlap between conditions.\" class=\"wp-image-16663\" style=\"border-style:none;border-width:0px;border-top-left-radius:0px;border-top-right-radius:0px;border-bottom-left-radius:0px;border-bottom-right-radius:0px\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/fda-approved-treatments-substance-use-disorders-venn-diagram.webp 312w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/fda-approved-treatments-substance-use-disorders-venn-diagram-300x256.webp 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 312px) 100vw, 312px\"><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center has-text-sm-font-size\"><em>Medicines approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of substance use disorders. Other treatments may be used \u201coff-label\u201d.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t        <\/section>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"flex-basis:25%\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p>Development of novel pharmacotherapies is hindered by the very nature of the disease. Substance use disorders are fundamentally <strong>behavioral conditions, <\/strong>shaped by neurobiology, learning, environment and experience. Although biological assays can determine how a drug interacts at the biochemical, cell and tissue level, they can\u2019t accurately predict changes in behavior.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-2-xl-font-size\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">Behavioral Pharmacology<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Bridging this gap requires models that can assess the efficacy of novel pharmacotherapies in a species that can demonstrate specific behavioral aspects of addiction. Animals will voluntarily consume drugs with abuse potential for their rewarding and pleasurable effects, making them a useful model for human substance use disorders.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Addiction research most commonly uses rodents and non-human primates, although even simpler organisms, such as the fruit fly <em>Drosophila melanogaster<\/em>, can form associations between the drug rewards and environmental cues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-2-xl-font-size\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">The Three-Phase Model of Addiction<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-28f84493 wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>There are three main paradigms for assessing novel treatments for addiction guided by the three-part addiction model proposed by Koob and Volkow (Koob &amp; Volkow, 2009).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The framework described addiction as a repeating cycle consisting of three interconnected phases:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Intoxication<\/strong> (binge): Drug consumption driven by rewarding and pleasurable effects, often escalating in dose and frequency.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Withdrawal<\/strong>: Arises when the drug is no longer available and the user has a negative experience.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Anticipation<\/strong> (craving): Exposure to social and spatial cues which result in a strong desire to begin consuming the drug again.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\" style=\"padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\"><section class=\"Pegasus__Container w-full   relative h-fit  text-content-dark mobile-stacking-standard  has-ivory-000-border-color is-layout-flow wp-block-pegasus-container-is-layout-flow\" style=\"   border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px;border-width:10px;\">\n\t        \n\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t        \t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row-background absolute w-full bottom-0 left-0 z-0 h-full has-ivory-000-background-color\" style=\"\">\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"inner relative h-full is-flex-layout flex flex-col justify-start  w-full\">\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full has-custom-border\" style=\"margin-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"309\" height=\"240\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/three-phase-addiction-cycle-binge-withdrawal-craving.webp\" alt=\"Diagram illustrating the three\u2011phase cycle of addiction, showing binge drug use, withdrawal symptoms and craving linked in a continuous loop.\" class=\"wp-image-16664\" style=\"border-style:none;border-width:0px;border-top-left-radius:0px;border-top-right-radius:0px;border-bottom-left-radius:0px;border-bottom-right-radius:0px\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/three-phase-addiction-cycle-binge-withdrawal-craving.webp 309w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/three-phase-addiction-cycle-binge-withdrawal-craving-300x233.webp 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 309px) 100vw, 309px\"><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center has-text-sm-font-size\" style=\"margin-top:0;padding-top:0\"><em>Three-part model of addiction (<a href=\"https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/27475769\/\">Koob &amp; Volkow, 2009<\/a>)<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t        <\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-2-xl-font-size\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">Reasons to be Optimistic <\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite the disturbing statistics on drug use and associated deaths, there are reasons to be optimistic. In the UK, 382,047 people accessed substance use treatments services in 2024 with 85% of those experiencing problems with opioids or alcohol, drugs for which a number of treatment options exist. The USA has seen a remarkable reduction in opioid overdoses, as a result of crackdowns on fentanyl precursors, nationwide naloxone rollouts and increased access to treatment programs. Globally, a third of the world\u2019s population has access to smoking cessation services and smoke-free laws protecting non-smokers from passive smoke.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There is also promise for novel treatments for substance use disorders. Psychedelics which demonstrate promising data for conditions such as Major Depressive Disorder may also be useful for addictions. Ketamine, for example, has undergone considerable research for alcohol use disorder (Mehtani <em>et al.<\/em>, 2025).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>However, there are still a huge number of people that are not receiving adequate treatment and further research is required. To properly investigate novel treatments, they must be assessed for efficacy in models that accurately predict addiction in humans. Self-administration, dependence and withdrawal and reinstatement paradigms are a set of complementary assessments that cover a range of addictive behaviors.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p style=\"padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--40)\">In the following article series, we explore how these validated behavioral pharmacology models are used to study intoxication, withdrawal and craving, and how they provide a valuable method for screening urgently needed novel pharmacotherapies.<\/p>\n\n\n<section class=\"Pegasus__Container w-full   relative h-fit  text-content-dark mobile-stacking-standard is-layout-flow wp-block-pegasus-container-is-layout-flow\" style=\"  padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--80); \">\n\t        \n\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t        \t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row-background absolute w-full bottom-0 left-0 z-0 h-full has-ivory-300-background-color\" style=\"\">\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"inner relative h-full is-flex-layout flex flex-col justify-start  w-full\">\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" style=\"padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--30)\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\"><div x-data=\"tabButtons\" x-init=\"initTabButtons('alderley-park')\" class=\"TabButtons aligncenter wp-elements-99a560a628086d67fb5f46c0753fce5e\">\n\n            \n            <div class=\"TabButtons__inner p-1 inline-flex w-fit space-x-1 rounded-full justify-between items-center overflow-auto no-scrollbar has--font-size\" style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">\n                                                                        <button type=\"button\" name=\"alderley-park\" x-show=\"activeTab == 'alderley-park'\" x-cloak class=\"TabButtons__button w-auto px-6 h-9 font-normal font-body leading-none rounded-full pointer-events-none whitespace-nowrap transition-colors ease-in-out\" style=\"background-color:#f9f2e8; \">\n                                <span>Up Next<\/span>\n                        <\/button>\n                        <button type=\"button\" x-on:click=\"showTab('alderley-park');\" x-show=\"activeTab != 'alderley-park'\" class=\"TabButtons__button w-auto px-6 h-9 font-normal font-body leading-none rounded-full whitespace-nowrap transition-colors ease-in-out  \" style=\" color: #002b46 \">\n                            <span>Up Next<\/span>\n                        <\/button>\n                                                                                <button type=\"button\" name=\"nottingham\" x-show=\"activeTab == 'nottingham'\" x-cloak class=\"TabButtons__button w-auto px-6 h-9 font-normal font-body leading-none rounded-full pointer-events-none whitespace-nowrap transition-colors ease-in-out\" style=\"background-color:#f9f2e8; \">\n                                <span>Addiction Research Series<\/span>\n                        <\/button>\n                        <button type=\"button\" x-on:click=\"showTab('nottingham');\" x-show=\"activeTab != 'nottingham'\" class=\"TabButtons__button w-auto px-6 h-9 font-normal font-body leading-none rounded-full whitespace-nowrap transition-colors ease-in-out  \" style=\" color: #002b46 \">\n                            <span>Addiction Research Series<\/span>\n                        <\/button>\n                                                                                <button type=\"button\" name=\"glasgow\" x-show=\"activeTab == 'glasgow'\" x-cloak class=\"TabButtons__button w-auto px-6 h-9 font-normal font-body leading-none rounded-full pointer-events-none whitespace-nowrap transition-colors ease-in-out\" style=\"background-color:#f9f2e8; \">\n                                <span>CNS &amp; Pain Models<\/span>\n                        <\/button>\n                        <button type=\"button\" x-on:click=\"showTab('glasgow');\" x-show=\"activeTab != 'glasgow'\" class=\"TabButtons__button w-auto px-6 h-9 font-normal font-body leading-none rounded-full whitespace-nowrap transition-colors ease-in-out  \" style=\" color: #002b46 \">\n                            <span>CNS &amp; Pain Models<\/span>\n                        <\/button>\n                                                        <\/div>\n    \n            <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"TabItem\" x-data=\"TabItem\" x-init=\"initTabItem('nottingham')\">\n\t        \n    \t\t<div x-show=\"showTabItem\" x-transition:enter=\"transition ease-out duration-400 delay-200\" x-transition:enter-start=\"opacity-0\" x-transition:enter-end=\"opacity-100\" x-cloak>\n\n\t\t\t<div class=\"acf-innerblocks-container\">\n<section class=\"Pegasus__Container w-full   relative h-fit  text-content-dark mobile-stacking-standard is-layout-flow wp-block-pegasus-container-is-layout-flow\" style=\"  padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50); border-color:#FFFFFF;border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px;border-width:10px;\">\n\t        \n\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t        \t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row-background absolute w-full bottom-0 left-0 z-0 h-full has-ivory-000-background-color\" style=\"\">\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"inner relative h-full is-flex-layout flex flex-col justify-start  container\">\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center has-text-4-xl-font-size\" style=\"padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--30)\">Explore our addiction research models<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<p class=\"has-content-primary-color has-text-color has-link-color has-text-base-font-size wp-elements-c80736ed41bf630ccf950d57dc238f05\">This article forms part of a four-part series exploring substance use disorders through the <strong>three-phase model of addiction<\/strong> and the <strong>preclinical behavioral pharmacology models<\/strong> used to support drug discovery.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Together, these articles examine how addiction develops, why it is so persistent, and how validated <em>in vivo <\/em>models are used to assess new therapeutic approaches. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Drug Addiction: A Public Health Issue That Refuses to go Away<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>An introduction to substance use disorders, the three-phase addiction model, and the role of behavioral pharmacology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li class=\"has-blue-300-color has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-1ddf9a6c5f83f18ef832301ca2b578c4\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/fr\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/\">Preclinical Models of Substance Use Intoxication (Binge)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>How reward-driven drug use and escalation are modelled <em>in vivo<\/em>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li class=\"has-blue-300-color has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-2dff57d439b9878104086e0e77935a4e\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/fr\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-substance-use-withdrawal\/\">Preclinical Models of Substance Use Withdrawal<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Assessing dependence, withdrawal symptoms and maintenance therapies. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li class=\"has-blue-300-color has-text-color has-link-color wp-elements-976994f562837ec1b79d0bc43a02d66f\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/fr\/blog\/preclinical-models-of-craving-and-relapse\/\">Preclinical Models of Substance Use Craving<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Understanding cue-induced relapse using reinstatement paradigms. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t        <\/section>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n    \n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"TabItem\" x-data=\"TabItem\" x-init=\"initTabItem('alderley-park')\">\n\t        \n    \t\t<div x-show=\"showTabItem\" x-transition:enter=\"transition ease-out duration-400 delay-200\" x-transition:enter-start=\"opacity-0\" x-transition:enter-end=\"opacity-100\" x-cloak>\n\n\t\t\t<div class=\"acf-innerblocks-container\">\n<section class=\"Pegasus__Container w-full   relative h-fit  text-content-dark mobile-stacking-standard is-layout-flow wp-block-pegasus-container-is-layout-flow\" style=\"  padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50); border-color:#FFFFFF;border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px;border-width:10px;\">\n\t        \n\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t        \t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row-background absolute w-full bottom-0 left-0 z-0 h-full has-ivory-000-background-color\" style=\"\">\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"inner relative h-full is-flex-layout flex flex-col justify-start  w-full\">\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center has-text-4-xl-font-size\">Continue the series<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-content-primary-color has-text-color has-link-color has-text-base-font-size overflow-hidden wp-elements-847aa70bd52f8f41f48e767ad5179915 has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"hidden\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-style-rounded-large is-style-rounded-large--1\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"606\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1-1024x606.webp\" alt=\"Sygnature Drug Discovery - Blog\" class=\"wp-image-14300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1-1024x606.webp 1024w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1-300x178.webp 300w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1-768x455.webp 768w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1-1536x909.webp 1536w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1-608x360.webp 608w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1-640x379.webp 640w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/blog-thumbnail-1.webp 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\"><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-vertical is-layout-flex wp-container-core-group-is-layout-fe9cc265 wp-block-group-is-layout-flex\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-color has-link-color has-text-2-xl-font-size wp-elements-90c51d698e1eef37440c1cec5edc0b9d\" style=\"color:#002b46;margin-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20);margin-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\"><strong>Next: <\/strong>Preclinical Models of Substance Use Intoxication<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-color has-link-color has-text-base-font-size wp-elements-25ea1a4627b39475493b4b1659510aaa\" style=\"color:#001024b3;margin-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">Focusing on the intoxication phase of addiction, this article examines how behavioral pharmacology models capture reward, reinforcement and binge\u2011like drug use in preclinical studies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons is-layout-flex wp-block-buttons-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-fill is-style-fill--2\" modaltype=\"side\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/fr\/blog\/substance-use-intoxication-binge-insights-from-preclinical-models\/\">Learn more<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t        <\/section>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n    \n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"TabItem\" x-data=\"TabItem\" x-init=\"initTabItem('glasgow')\">\n\t        \n    \t\t<div x-show=\"showTabItem\" x-transition:enter=\"transition ease-out duration-400 delay-200\" x-transition:enter-start=\"opacity-0\" x-transition:enter-end=\"opacity-100\" x-cloak>\n\n\t\t\t<div class=\"acf-innerblocks-container\">\n<section class=\"Pegasus__Container w-full   relative h-fit  text-content-dark mobile-stacking-standard is-layout-flow wp-block-pegasus-container-is-layout-flow\" style=\"  padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50);padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--50); border-color:#FFFFFF;border-top-left-radius:25px;border-top-right-radius:25px;border-bottom-left-radius:25px;border-bottom-right-radius:25px;border-width:10px;\">\n\t        \n\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t        \t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row-background absolute w-full bottom-0 left-0 z-0 h-full has-ivory-000-background-color\" style=\"\">\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"inner relative h-full is-flex-layout flex flex-col justify-start  w-full\">\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center has-text-4-xl-font-size\">CNS &amp; Pain Models<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-content-primary-color has-text-color has-link-color has-text-base-font-size overflow-hidden wp-elements-9ed9bb46cc2365c6813e51baec3b5457 has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"hidden\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-style-rounded-large is-style-rounded-large--3\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"575\" src=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration-1024x575.webp\" alt=\"diagram illustration of interconnected neurons representing central nervous system drug discovery, highlighting neural pathways and synaptic connections for therapeutic research.\" class=\"wp-image-7745\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration-1024x575.webp 1024w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration-300x169.webp 300w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration-768x432.webp 768w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration-1536x863.webp 1536w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration-1920x1080.webp 1920w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration-640x360.webp 640w, https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/12\/cns-drug-discovery-neural-network-illustration.webp 2000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\"><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group has-global-padding is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\" allowchildrentofillwidth=\"\" overflow=\"\" flexwrap=\"\">\n<p class=\"has-content-primary-color has-text-color has-link-color has-text-base-font-size wp-elements-f58785d528a8df706bde7b033c502336\" style=\"padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20)\">Addiction research depends on validated <em>in vivo <\/em>behavioral pharmacology models to assess reward, reinforcement, dependence and relapse-relevant behaviors. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>These approaches form part of Sygnature Discovery\u2019s <strong>CNS &amp; pain <em>in vivo <\/em>pharmacology capabilities, <\/strong>supporting translational neuroscience and substance use disorder drug discovery from early research through to clinical decision-making. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons is-layout-flex wp-block-buttons-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-fill is-style-fill--4\" modaltype=\"\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sygnaturediscovery.com\/in-vivo-pharmacology\/cns-and-pain-models\/\">Explore our CNS &amp; Pain Model Solutions <\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t        <\/section>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n    \n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t        <\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Drug addiction remains one of the most persistent and complex public health challenges worldwide. Despite advances in prevention and treatment, drug\u2011related harm and mortality continue to rise, underscoring the need for deeper biological understanding and more predictive models to support the development of new therapies.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"featured_media":0,"template":"","category":[1412,816],"class_list":["post-16872","blog","type-blog","status-publish","hentry","category-cns-pain-models","category-pharmacologie-in-vivo"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.5 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Drug Addiction: A Public Health Issue that Refuses to Go Away<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Explore the complexities of drug addiction, its impact on physical, psychological, and social health and the need for behavioral models.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" 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